An overview of mycotoxins in poultry health
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.61308/CQVK7616Keywords:
mycotoxin, strategies, binders, poultry health, immunosuppressionAbstract
Mycotoxins are toxic by-products produced by certain molds comprising mainly species from Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium spp., that often show up in poultry feed and put birds at serious risk. When chickens or other poultry get exposed to these toxins (e.g., aflatoxins in some cases), it weakens their immune defenses, cuts down on how efficiently they turn feed into growth, causes damage to organs, and leaves them far more open to picking up infections. In the end, this drags down overall flock performance and makes sustainable poultry farming tougher to achieve.
To fight back against these problems, people have come up with and put into practice a range of approaches, including biological ones, chemical treatments, and physical methods. Among them, a practical and widely used option involves adding adsorbents (or mycotoxin binders) right into the feed. Common ones include zeolite, bentonite, yeast cell wall products, and activated charcoal. These work by trapping the toxins in the birds' digestive system, so they're less likely to get absorbed into the body. Non-nutritive feed additives (enzyme-based detoxifiers and probiotics) are effective biological approaches for breaking down mycotoxins. Proper feed storage and application of antifungal agents all play a crucial role in reducing fungal contamination.
References
Adhikari, M., Negi, B., Kaushik, N., Adhikari, A., Al-Khedhairy, A. A., Kaushik, N. K. & Choi, E. H. (2017). T-2 mycotoxin: toxicological effects and decontamination strategies. Oncotarget, 8(20), 33933 - 33952. https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.15422. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.15422
Agriopoulou, S., Stamatelopoulou, E. & Varzakas, T. (2020). Advances in occurrence, importance, and mycotoxin control strategies: Prevention and detoxification in foods. Foods, 9(2), 137. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9020137
Akinmusire, O. O., El-Yuguda, A., Musa, J. A., Oyedele, O. A., Sulyok, M., Somorin, Y. M., Ezekiel, C. N. & Krska, R. (2018). Mycotoxins in poultry feed and feed ingredients in Nigeria. Mycotoxin Research, 35(2), 149 - 155. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12550-018-0337-y. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12550-018-0337-y
Alshannaq, A. & Yu, J. H. (2017). Occurrence, toxicity, and analysis of major mycotoxins in food. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(6), 632. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14060632
Andersen, B., Phippen, C., Frisvad, J. C., Emery S. & Eustace, R. A. (2020). Fungal and chemical diversity in hay and wrapped haylage for equine feed. Mycotoxin Research, 36(2), 159 - 172. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12550-019-00377-5
Antonissen, G., Martel, A., Pasmans, F., Ducatelle, R., Verbrugghe, E., Vandenbroucke, V., Li, S., Haesebrouck, F., Van Immerseel, F. & Croubels, S. (2014). The Impact of Fusarium Mycotoxins on Human and Animal Host Susceptibility to Infectious Diseases. Toxins, 6(2), 430 - 452. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins6020430
Bracarense, A-PFL., Lucioli, J., Grenier, B., Pacheco, G. D., Moll, W-D. & Schatzmayr, G. (2012). Chronic ingestion of deoxynivalenol and fumonisin, alone or in interaction, induces morphological and immunological changes in the intestine of piglets. Britania Journal of Nutrition, 107(12), 1776 - 1786. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114511004946
Brennan, K. M., Oh, S. Y., Yiannikouris, A., Graugnard, D. E. & Karrow, N. A. (2017). Differential Gene Expression Analysis of Bovine Macrophages after Exposure to the Penicillium Mycotoxins Citrinin and/or Ochratoxin A. Toxins, 9(11), 366. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins9110366
Brown, R., Priest, E., Naglik, J. R. & Richardson, J. P. (2021). Fungal Toxins and Host Immune Responses. Frontier of Microbiology, 12, 643639. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.643639
Bonerba, E., Manfredi, A., Dimuccio, M. M., Lorusso, P., Pandiscia, A., Terio, V., Di Pinto, A., Panseri, S., Ceci, E. & Bozzo, G. (2024). Ochratoxin A in Poultry Supply Chain: Overview of Feed Occurrence, Carry-Over, and Pathognomonic Lesions in Target Organs to Promote Food Safety. Toxins, 16(11), 487. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16110487. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16110487
Castaldo, L. & Vurro, M. (2017). Mycotoxins in animal feeds and the food chain: A comprehensive review. Mycotoxin Research, 33(3), 155 - 171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12550-017-0276-6.
Chelenga, M., Matumba, L., Sitali, M. C., Kachala, B., Nambuzi, V., Mwenifumbo, M., Gama, A. P., Mwanza, M., Monjerezi, M. & Leslie, J. F. (2025). Are Aflatoxin Residues in Chicken Products a Real or Perceived Human Dietary Risk? Toxins, 17(4), 179. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17040179. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17040179
Daramola, A. A. & Omokpariola, D. O. (2025). Proximate analysis and aflatoxin contamination in poultry feeds: a comparative study of two feed companies in Jos and Kaduna, Nigeria. Discov. Food, 5(1), 93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44187-025-00367-w. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s44187-025-00367-w
Ding, T., Cullen, P.J. & Yan, W. (2022). Applications of Cold Plasma in Food Safety; Springer: Singapore. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-1827-7
EFSA (2010). EFSA Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP); Statement on the establishment of guidelines for the assessment of additives from the functional group ‘substances for reduction of the contamination of feed by mycotoxins’. EFSA Journal, 8, 8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1693
Esan, O. O., Okanlawon, A. A., Ogunro, B. N., Abiola, J. O., Olaogun, S. C. & Aliyu, V. A. (2024). Seasonal variation of mycotoxin levels in poultry feeds and feed ingredients in Oyo State, Nigeria. Mycotoxin Research, 40(2), 319 - 325. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12550-024-00530-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12550-024-00530-9
European Commission (2006) Commission Recommendation 2006/576/EC of 30th August, 2006. Presence of deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, ochratoxin A, T-2 and HT-2 and fumonisins in products intended for animal feeding.
Fan, Z., Chen, T., Cai, G., Huang, X., Zhong, S., Li, X. & Zhang, E. (2023). Effect of Aspergillus niger fermentation on the metabolites in corn stalks, Fermentation, 9(1), 50. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9010050
Foerster, C., Monsalve, L. & Rios-Gajardo, G. (2023). Infant exposure to ochratoxin A, zearalenone, and deoxynivalenol from the consumption of milk formula and baby cereal in Chile. Food Research International, 187, 114389. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2024.114389
Grahame, J. (2021). Maize Fusarium Kernel Rot (224). Pacific Pests,Patogens and Weeds-Online Edition. Pestnet. https://apps.lucidcentral.org/pppw_v10/text/web_full/entities/maize_fusarium_kernel_rot_224.htm.
Hua, Z., Liu, R., Chen, Y., Liu, G., Li, C., Song, Y., Cao, Z., Li, W., Li W, Lu, C. & Liu, Y. (2021) Contamination of Aflatoxins Induces Severe Hepatotoxicity Through Multiple Mechanisms. Frontier of Pharmacology, 11, 605823. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2020.605823. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.605823
Kayan, A., Prasongsook, S. & Poeikhampha, T. (2025). Diet supplementation with phytase and xylanase on laying performance, egg quality, apparent metabolizable energy, and phosphorous use in laying hens. Veterinary World, 18(1), 155 - 161. https://doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2025.155-161. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2025.155-161
Lin Y., Li L., Makarova A., Burgers P., Stone M. & Lloyd R. (2014). Error-prone replication bypass of the primary aflatoxin B1 DNA adduct, AFB1-N7-Gua. Journal of Biolgoy and Chemistry, 289, 18497 - 18506. 10.1074/jbc.M114.561563. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M114.561563
Mateo, F., Mateo, E. M., Tarazona, A., García-Esparza, M. Á., Soria, J. M. & Jiménez, M. (2025). New Strategies and Artificial Intelligence Methods for the Mitigation of Toxigenic Fungi and Mycotoxins in Foods. Toxins, 17(5), 231. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17050231. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17050231
Maurya, U. (2025). The Impact of Mycotoxins in the Food Industry: Occurrence, Detection, and Mitigation Strategies-A Review. Preprints, 2025010219. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202501.0219.v1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202501.0219.v1
Mekuria, A. N., Routledge, M. N., Gong, Y. Y. & Mekonnen, S. (2020). Aflatoxins as a risk factor for liver cirrhosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Pharmacol Toxicology, 21, 39. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40360-020-00420-7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40360-020-00420-7
Molapo, S. & Motselsi, M. (2020). The effect of egg size (weight) on the egg shell thicikness, egg yolk and hatchability in koekoek chickens. Online Journal of Animal and Feed Research, 10(6), 278 - 281. DOI: https://doi.org/10.51227/ojafr.2020.37
Moloi, T. P., Ziqubu, K., Mazibuko-Mbeje, S. E., Mabaso, N. H. & Ndlovu, Z. (2024). Aflatoxin B1-induced hepatotoxicity through mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and inflammation as central pathological mechanisms: A review of experimental evidence. Toxicology, 509, 153983. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2024.153983. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2024.153983
Murugesan, G. R., Ledoux, D. R., Naehrer, K., Berthiller, F., Applegate, T. J., Grenier, B., Phillips, T. D. & Schatzmayr, G. (2015). Prevalence and effects of mycotoxins on poultry health and performance, and recent development in mycotoxin counteracting strategies. Poultry Science, 94(6), 1298 - 1315. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps/pev075. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3382/ps/pev075
Nakavuma, J. L., Kirabo, A., Bogere, P., Nabulime, M. M., Kayaa, A. N. & Gnonlonfin, B. (2020). Awareness of mycotoxins and occurrence of aflatoxins in poultry feeds and feed ingredients in selected regions of Uganda. International Journal of Food Contamination, 7(1), 1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40550-020-00079-2
Olariu, R. M., Fiţ, N. I., Bouari, C. M. & Nadăş, G. C. (2025). Mycotoxins in Broiler Production: Impacts on Growth, Immunity, Vaccine Efficacy, and Food Safety. Toxins, 17(6), 261. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17060261. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17060261
Penagos-Tabares, F., Khiaosa-ard, R., Nagl, V., Faas, J., Jenkins, T. & Sulyok, M. (2021). Mycotoxins, phytoestrogens and other secondary metabolites in Austrian pastures: Occurrences, contamination levels and implications of Geo climatic factors. Toxins, 13(7), 460. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13070460
Peng, W. X., Marchal, J. L. M. & van der Poel, A. F. B. Strategies to Prevent and Reduce Mycotoxins for Compound Feed Manufacturing. Animal Feed Science Technology, 237, 129 – 153. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2018.01.017
Pierron, A., Alassane-Kpembi, I. & Oswald, I. P. (2016). Impact of mycotoxin on immune response and consequences for pig health. Animal Nutrition, 2(2), 63 – 68. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aninu.2016.03.001
Ran, X. (2023). In vitro Toxicity Assessment of Mycotoxins Using Bovine Mammary Epithelial Cells and Their Remediation Using Yeast Cell Wall-Based Adsorbents. Doctoral dissertation, University of Guelph.
Reisinger, N., Schürer-Waldheim, S., Mayer, E., Debevere, S., Antonissen, G. & Sulyok, M. (2019). Mycotoxin occurrence in maize silage - A neglected risk for bovine gut health? Toxins, 11(10), 577. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11100577
Santos-Pereira, C. C., Cunha, S. & Fernandes, J. O. (2019). Prevalent mycotoxins in animal feed: occurrence and analytical methods. Toxins, 11(5), 290. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11050290
Saqer, M. H. (2013). Aflatoxin B1 Residues in Eggs and Flesh of Laying Hens Fed Aflatoxin B1 Contaminated Diet. American Journal of Agricultural and Biological Sciences, 8(2), 156 - 161. doi:10.3844/ajabssp.2013.156.161. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3844/ajabssp.2013.156.161
Smith, M. C., Madec, S., Coton, E. & Hymery, N. (2016). Natural co-occurrence of mycotoxins in foods and feeds and their in vitro combined toxicological effects. Toxins, 8(4), 94. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins8040094
Suleman, S., Qureshi, J. A., Rasheed, M., Farooq, W. & Yasmin, F. (2022). Poultry feed contamination and its potential hazards on human health. Biomedical Letters, 8(1), 70 - 81. DOI: https://doi.org/10.47262/BL/8.1.20210901
Venkatesh, N. & Keller, N. P. (2019). Mycotoxins in conversation with bacteria and fungi. Front Microbiology, 10, 403. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2019.00403
Vila-Donat, P., Marín, S., Sanchis, V. & Ramos, A. J. A. (2018). Review of the Mycotoxin Adsorbing Agents, with an Emphasis on Their Multi-Binding Capacity, for Animal Feed Decontamination. Food Chem. Toxicol., 114, 246 - 259. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2018.02.044
Wu, F. (2015). Global impacts of aflatoxin in maize: trade and human health. World Mycotoxin Journal, 8(2), 137 - 142. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3920/WMJ2014.1737
Wu, K., Ren, C., Gong, Y., Gao, X., Rajput, S. A., Qi, D. & Wang, S. (2021). The insensitive mechanism of poultry to zearalenone: A review. Animal Nutrition, 7(3), 587 - 594. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aninu.2021.01.002
Yuan, T., Li, J., Wang, Y., Li, M., Yang, A., Ren, C., Qi, D. & Zhang, N. (2022). Effects of Zearalenone on Production Performance, Egg Quality, Ovarian Function and Gut Microbiota of Laying Hens. Toxins, 14(10), 653. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14100653. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14100653
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Bulgarian Journal of Animal Husbandry
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
